- alpha-helix structure (α-helix)
- type of secondary protein structure formed by folding the polypeptide into a helix shape with hydrogen bonds stabilizing the structure
- amino acid
- a protein’s monomer; has a central carbon or alpha carbon to which an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen, and an R group or side chain is attached; the R group is different for all 20 common amino acids
- beta-pleated sheet (β-pleated)
- secondary structure in proteins in which hydrogen bonding forms “pleats” between atoms on the polypeptide chain’s backbone
- biological macromolecule
- large molecule necessary for life that is built from smaller organic molecules
- carbohydrate
- biological macromolecule in which the ratio of carbon to hydrogen and to oxygen is 1:2:1; carbohydrates serve as energy sources and structural support in cells and form arthropods’ cellular exoskeleton
- cellulose
- polysaccharide that comprises the plants’ cell wall; provides structural support to the cell
- chaperone
- (also, chaperonin) protein that helps nascent protein in the folding process
- chitin
- type of carbohydrate that forms the outer skeleton of all arthropods that include crustaceans and insects; it also forms fungi cell walls
- dehydration synthesis
- (also, condensation) reaction that links monomer molecules, releasing a water molecule for each bond formed
- denaturation
- loss of shape in a protein as a result of changes in temperature, pH, or chemical exposure
- deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
- double-helical molecule that carries the cell’s hereditary information
- disaccharide
- two sugar monomers that a glycosidic bond links
- enzyme
- catalyst in a biochemical reaction that is usually a complex or conjugated protein
- glycogen
- storage carbohydrate in animals
- glycosidic bond
- bond formed by a dehydration reaction between two monosaccharides with eliminating a water molecule
- hormone
- chemical signaling molecule, usually protein or steroid, secreted by endocrine cells that act to control or regulate specific physiological processes
- hydrolysis
- reaction that causes breakdown of larger molecules into smaller molecules by utilizing water
- lipid
- macromolecule that is nonpolar and insoluble in water
- messenger RNA (mRNA)
- RNA that carries information from DNA to ribosomes during protein synthesis
- monomer
- smallest unit of larger molecules that are polymers
- monosaccharide
- single unit or monomer of carbohydrates
- nucleic acid
- biological macromolecule that carries the cell’s genetic blueprint and carries instructions for the cell’s functioning
- nucleotide
- monomer of nucleic acids; contains a pentose sugar, one or more phosphate groups, and a nitrogenous base
- omega fat
- type of polyunsaturated fat that the body requires; numbering the carbon omega starts from the methyl end or the end that is farthest from the carboxylic end
- peptide bond
- bond formed between two amino acids by a dehydration reaction
- phosphodiester
- linkage covalent chemical bond that holds together the polynucleotide chains with a phosphate group linking neighboring nucleotides’ two pentose sugars
- phospholipid
- membranes’ major constituent; comprised of two fatty acids and a phosphate-containing group attached to a glycerol backbone
- polymer
- chain of monomer residues that covalent bonds link; polymerization is the process of polymer formation from monomers by condensation
- polynucleotide
- long chain of nucleotides
- polypeptide
- long chain of amino acids that peptide bonds link
- polysaccharide
- long chain of monosaccharides; may be branched or unbranched
- primary structure
- linear sequence of amino acids in a protein
- protein
- biological macromolecule comprised of one or more amino acid chains
- purine
- type of nitrogenous base in DNA and RNA; adenine and guanine are purines
- pyrimidine
- type of nitrogenous base in DNA and RNA; cytosine, thymine, and uracil are pyrimidines
- quaternary structure
- association of discrete polypeptide subunits in a protein
- ribonucleic acid (RNA)
- single-stranded, often internally base paired, molecule that is involved in protein synthesis
- ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
- RNA that ensures the proper alignment of the mRNA and the ribosomes during protein synthesis and catalyzes forming the peptide linkage
- saturated fatty acid
- long-chain hydrocarbon with single covalent bonds in the carbon chain; the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton is maximized
- secondary structure
- regular structure that proteins form by intramolecular hydrogen bonding between the oxygen atom of one amino acid residue and the hydrogen attached to the nitrogen atom of another amino acid residue
- starch
- storage carbohydrate in plants
- steroid
- type of lipid comprised of four fused hydrocarbon rings forming a planar structure
- tertiary structure
- a protein’s three-dimensional conformation, including interactions between secondary structural elements; formed from interactions between amino acid side chains
- trans fat
- fat formed artificially by hydrogenating oils, leading to a different arrangement of double bond(s) than those in naturally occurring lipids
- transcription
- process through which messenger RNA forms on a template of DNA
- transfer RNA (tRNA)
- RNA that carries activated amino acids to the site of protein synthesis on the ribosome
- translation
- process through which RNA directs the protein’s formation
- triacylglycerol (also, triglyceride)
- fat molecule; consists of three fatty acids linked to a glycerol molecule
- unsaturated fatty acid
- long-chain hydrocarbon that has one or more double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain
- wax
- lipid comprised of a long-chain fatty acid that is esterified to a long-chain alcohol; serves as a protective coating on some feathers, aquatic mammal fur, and leaves