1 Chapter 1: Role of the School Psychologist

School psychology is a complex field that pulls from multiple facets of psychology. With a focus on education and inclusion, school psychologists work with many tools and specialists to meet the needs of their clients. This chapter aims to provide readers with an introductory look at what school psychology is, what school psychologists do, and what credentials are needed to enter the growing field of school psychology.

School psychology is a branch of psychology that deals primarily with the education system. School psychologists use assessment tools, psychological testing, and consultation skills in the school environment. School psychology may appear daunting because the field has been influenced by many different facets of psychology (Harowski et al., 2006). While the origins of this discipline arise from child clinical psychology, school psychology is also influenced by educational, developmental, counselling, community, and behavioural psychology. With so many types of psychology involved in this discipline, it is clear how the field has become so broad.

Because school psychologists work directly in educational settings, they are familiar with the unique characteristics, delivery systems, and current educational policies of the school district in which they work. School psychology involves a specialized understanding of child and adolescent development and an empirically-based approach to assessment and intervention (Barker & Carlson Berg, 2022). School psychologists are trained in evaluation, assessment, intervention, and research, allowing them to contribute significantly to the school team and educational environment. Psychologists working in the school system also collaborate with other school professionals, such as speech-language pathologists and teachers, to provide the most effective and comprehensive service to children and adolescents.

School psychology aims to support students in the classroom through inclusion. Inclusion refers to providing equal access and opportunities to all individuals, including those belonging to historically marginalized groups. Examples include individuals with mental or physical disabilities, learning and behavioural disorders, and underrepresented groups, such as racial, cultural and ethnic minority groups (Saklofske et al., 2007). School psychologists work at the school, district, and community levels and administer assessments and empirically-based interventions (Saklofske et al., 2007). They work alongside other specialized professionals to provide educational services to students. Interviews with students, parents, teachers, administrators, and other specialists help school psychologists understand the strengths and needs of the student being assessed, which informs interventions if necessary.

Tests and Assessments in School Psychology

Tests and assessments are administered to gather information about students. These assessments come in many forms, such as Likert scales, achievement tests, intelligence tests, and tests designed to look at behaviours, such as the Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC). These assessments are essential in school psychology as they illuminate their client’s educational needs. For example, a school psychologist can use specific assessments to rule out or confirm learning disabilities and identify students’ academic strengths and weaknesses. Insights gleaned from administrating standardized assessments allow appropriate interventions to be selected and implemented.

School psychologists help students by implementing interventions. These interventions can be direct or indirect—both are essential for students’ development and success. Indirect interventions are student-focused, with the school psychologist working primarily with parents and teachers to plan educational and behavioural interventions for the student. Some examples of indirect interventions are listed below in accordance with the Canadian Psychological Association’s (CPA, 2007) Professional Practice Guidelines:

• Consultation. School psychologists consult with teachers and administrators to address concerns related to individual students, class behaviour, and learning difficulties.

• Program planning. Program planning occurs following functional behavioural assessments, where psychologists advise on how to adapt curriculum and make accommodations to meet a student’s learning style, cognitive profile, developmental level, and behavioural needs.

• Parent collaboration. Collaborating with parents allows for a better understanding of students’ behavioural, socio-emotional, and learning difficulties and how best to integrate intervention strategies at home and school.

• Goal setting. School psychologists interpret their assessment findings to help establish realistic academic goals based on a student’s strengths and needs.

• Teacher assistance. School psychologists consult with teachers and suggest evidence-based teaching strategies in accordance with a student’s learning or behavioural difficulties.

• Interagency networking. School psychologists collaborate with other agencies to provide comprehensive services to the child or adolescent.

• Referrals. School psychologists facilitate referrals to other agencies and professionals as needed.

Direct interventions are also student-focused and consist of interventions which are influenced by student performance on psychological assessments. Direct interventions identify emerging challenges experienced by the student and aim to understand a student’s difficulty in the school environment and provide accommodations to help the student adapt. These interventions can be used with students who exhibit chronic and disruptive behaviours and are at risk of leaving or being removed from school. In these cases, postvention services are recommended and implemented to facilitate learning in an environment more suitable to the student’s needs. There are many types of postvention services that the student can enroll in. School psychologists do not provide these supports directly; instead, they collaborate and consult with the student, parents, and teachers about the best-suited options for the learner. Some examples of direct interventions are listed below in accordance with the Canadian Psychological Association’s (CPA, 2007) Professional Practice Guidelines:

• Individual psychological assessment. The cornerstone of a psychoeducational assessment is cognitive and academic testing. Test scores are interpreted in the context of other information gathered by the school psychologist. This information includes conducting classroom observations and interviews, reviewing files and case history, collecting functional behavioural data, and reading previous assessments from other professionals, if applicable. Psychological testing includes administering and interpreting standardized psychological tests which assess areas such as cognitive development, memory, executive functioning, visual perception, auditory perception, language development, visual motor skills, academic achievement, and socio-emotional and behavioural adjustment. The data from a comprehensive psychological assessment informs a school psychologist’s recommendations about intervention strategies for the student.

• Individual therapy. School psychologists use evidence-based psychological interventions, such as cognitive behavioural therapy, relaxation therapy, rational emotive therapy, and social skills training. These interventions help students and those around them better understand the nature of a problem at school, how best to cope and handle it, and how to prevent future problems. Interventions can also help students, teachers, and administrators plan for future school success.

• Group behaviour skills development. School psychologists meet the needs of several students by organizing small groups which focus on specific issues or the enhancement of certain coping skills. Some examples are social skills training, anger management training, and teaching stress management strategies.

Put this information to the test! Identify below which interventions classify as indirect and direct by dragging and dropping the intervention into the correct category.

 

Origins and Influences

At the beginning of this section, the interdisciplinary origins of school psychology were mentioned briefly; however, its importance is paramount. Many different disciplines of psychology converge together to provide school psychologists with the necessary tools to make evaluations of children’s behaviours and administer evidence-based interventions. Below we explore how different domains of psychology impact school psychology.

Clinical Psychology

Clinical psychologists specialize in providing comprehensive mental and behavioural health care to clients, including individuals, couples, and families. Clinical psychology is a branch of psychology that relies on empirical literature to inform practice in a clinical setting. By staying up to date on current research, clinical psychologists look for empirically sound methods and interventions to help clients improve their lives and minimize the impact of mental health disorders on day-to-day functioning (Shakow, 1976).

Having a working knowledge of clinical psychology is crucial as some students face clinical issues. For example, if a student presents with inattention problems in class, the student may be referred to the school psychologist for an assessment. Clinical skills equip school psychologists with an understanding of children’s behaviours, which allows them to identify and administer necessary assessments. As the child in this example shows signs of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), the school psychologist may administer the Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC), which measures hyperactivity, aggression, and conduct issues in children. The child’s score on the BASC, along with other information obtained during the assessment, may warrant a diagnosis of ADHD. The ability to diagnose children with externalizing disorders, such as ADHD, differs depending on where the school psychologist practices. However, since school psychology is a collaborative field, it is common for school psychologists to reach out to other professionals to determine a diagnosis. Once the diagnosis is given, the school psychologist recommends interventions to aid the student. Having a working knowledge of ADHD derived from clinical psychology, the school psychologist can select and implement interventions and recommend accommodations to meet the child’s unique learning needs (Carr, 2015).

Educational Psychology

Educational psychology focuses on how individuals learn and retain knowledge (Mahmud, 2009). In this vein, school psychologists are responsible for finding ways to facilitate student learning. The focus is not directly teaching students but instead giving them the tools to construct knowledge through learning theories. Constructive learning theories state that children transform and advance their knowledge of a topic by comparing it to old information and revising it when new information is presented or old information is no longer valid. Constructivist theories of learning emphasize individual development, advancement, and manipulation of information by the learner to develop an in-depth understanding of the topics covered. Educational psychologists focus on theories and interventions that promote individual and group learning in children (Cameron, 2006).

Because school psychologists work with children with learning disabilities, as well as children who are struggling academically, having knowledge of educational psychology is invaluable. As educational psychology is concerned with how individuals learn, it provides school psychologists with information about interventions that best support students and their learning styles (Cameron, 2006).

Developmental Psychology

As previously mentioned, school psychology comes from developmental psychology. Developmental psychology focuses on how individuals grow and adapt throughout their lives (Cairns, 1998). Child developmental psychologists study how children develop physically and mentally from infancy until the end of adolescence, which encompasses the breadth of the child’s education until the end of high school. Knowing which needs must be met to ensure healthy development and understanding factors that affect development provide a benchmark for determining what is considered normal and abnormal behaviour during each stage of life.

Identifying learning problems early can alter a child’s relationship with academia. Children have more time to benefit from psychoeducational interventions and adapt to the school environment if interventions are implemented early rather than later. Understanding developmental milestones within the school environment is pertinent to school psychologists; they must act quickly when supporting students to help them adapt when their minds are most receptive.

Counselling Psychology

Counselling psychology aims to help individuals improve their well-being and increase adaptive functioning through direct intervention and talk therapy (Orlans & Scoyoc, 2009). Counselling psychology is like clinical psychology, though less emphasis is put on diagnosing and more is put on guiding the individual to navigate their problems. Counselling psychologists provide clients with the tools needed to work through emotional problems and teach them how to use these tools to cope with and process their emotions.

The ultimate goal of school psychologists is to help students thrive at school. Having strong counselling skills allows school psychologists to work alongside students, parents, and teachers to identify students’ strengths and weaknesses and alleviate other issues that may arise at school.

Community Psychology

Community psychology is also valuable to the school psychology profession. Community psychology addresses social, cultural, economic, political, environmental, and international influences that can affect an individual (Levine et al., 2005). This is important because school psychologists work with diverse populations, and what may apply to one cultural group may not be acceptable to another. An example of this is the connotation of eye contact in different cultures. In Western culture, it is customary to make eye contact with an individual of higher status when speaking, whereas in many Eastern cultures making eye contact with an individual of higher status is considered rude (McCarthy et al., 2006). If culture is not considered, behaviour may be misinterpreted, and errors in diagnosing students with particular disorders may occur. Thus, school psychologists must be aware of different cultural behaviours and community practices to ensure a diagnosis is not made without accounting for the student’s culture.

Behavioural Psychology

Finally, behavioural psychology plays a significant role in school psychology. Behavioural psychology is concerned with how the environment shapes human behaviour, in terms of rewards and punishments, and how behaviour is taught or conditioned. Understanding how behaviours are learned through exposure, practice, and reward inform how teachers engage their students, and teach them new skills and aptitudes.

What School Psychologists Do and Why They Are Important

Now that we better understand what school psychology is, we can get into what school psychologists do and why they are important. School psychologists are clinical professionals trained to work in various educational settings, such as hospitals, schools, and community-based centers (Barker, 2022). In school psychology programs, trainees are taught to specialize in multiple fields within psychology, such as cognitive, social, behavioural, and clinical (Saklofske et al., 2007; Sheridan & Gutkin, 2000; NASP, 2010; Barker, 2022). They are also trained in how to best support and collaborate with a variety of individuals, such as students, teachers, parents, families, communities, and doctors (Lambie, 2008; Weist et al., 2006; Mellin et al., 2011). As Anderson-Butcher and Ashton (2004) suggested, school psychologists work alongside these individuals via interprofessional collaboration to assess and evaluate the students’ problems and needs, connect with teachers, and help guide and inform prevention and intervention strategies.

School psychologists plan and deliver programs and schedules that help students learn and foster a more positive educational environment (Anderson-Butcher & Ashton, 2004). School psychologists also play a significant role in informing parents about resources and remediations to improve their child’s learning outcomes and academic performance (Mellin et al., 2010; Mellin et al., 2011). As they have a direct connection to the student’s families, school psychologists can support children and their parents. School psychologists are essential in improving and promoting mental and physical health and well-being within an educational environment. School psychologists can help prevent and intervene through assessment and research if specific crises, such as suicide, occur (Anderson-Butcher & Ashton, 2004).

Assessment of Individual Learning Styles

Teachers tend to follow a particular style of teaching where the teacher is the center of the student’s learning, and students are taught to learn and work within their classrooms alongside others (Barker, 2022). This is often useful and beneficial for most students and educators as it is time efficient and incorporates collaborative teamwork and learning (Barker, 2022). This being said, it may not be suitable for all students—some students may find it challenging to stay focused or keep up, while others may find that they get distracted easily. A downside of this type of teaching is that it does not accommodate individual needs; it teaches students collectively instead of individually. This can be difficult for students with specific learning disabilities or ADHD (CPA, 2007).

School psychologists elucidate students’ mental, emotional, and developmental struggles through assessment and consultation and formulate a diagnosis. They then facilitate an individual plan to help promote the child’s learning and decrease future occurrences (CPA, 2007). By addressing the student’s unique needs and providing a proper diagnosis, the student can advance academically while continuing to be included in the classroom. Not removing the student from the classroom is achieved through accommodations within the classroom, creating a positive environment for all students.

Direct Intervention Services

As previously mentioned, school psychologists are essential in educational environments regarding many aspects of prevention and intervention. School psychologists can pinpoint and address several important occurrences, such as suicide intervention (Schmidt, 2016; Hopple & Ball, 2022). Unfortunately, an alarmingly high amount of suicides, suicidal attempts, and suicidal thoughts are reported within the school setting by mental health professionals. Recent reports found that 25.5% of individuals aged 18-24 have considered suicide in the past month (CDC, 2020; The Jed Foundation, 2022). Without school psychologists and counsellors, accessing mental health professionals outside of school can be challenging.

School psychologists play a direct role in suicide prevention by screening students who report having suicidal thoughts (Hopple & Ball, 2022). They can also help by educating students, teachers, and families about suicide and providing information on local suicide support programs. There is an emphasis on reporting any situations or red flags to a mental health professional as soon as possible to ignite a potential intervention plan. Programs may also be provided for students who have attempted suicide, which supports them following the attempt (Erbacher et al., 2014; Lieberman et al., 2014; Hopple & Ball, 2022).

Studies show that some school psychologists feel unprepared to handle severe and traumatic crises. As there is an underwhelming amount of support from other school psychologists (Debski et al., 2007; O’Neill et al., 2020; Hopple & Ball, 2022 ), it can be difficult to cope with traumatic events in isolation and can be overwhelming on top of other professional requirements. Another form of direct intervention school psychologists can assist in is student dropout rates. School psychologists play a significant role in providing a supportive environment for students, especially since educational outcomes are correlated with mental health (Hopple & Ball, 2022).

Indirect Intervention Services

Aside from direct intervention, school psychologists are also responsible for indirect interventions. Here, a school psychologist works alongside the student’s teachers and parents via interprofessional collaboration, planning specific individualized intervention programs for the student (CPA, 2007). A school psychologist may collaborate with counsellors or administrators to address general class behaviour and discuss potential learning concerns or difficulties.

The Canadian Psychological Association (2007) states that school psychologists formulate programs for teachers and students, which help accommodate students’ behavioural and academic needs. They can advise teachers on how to address difficult situations in the classroom and broaden their curriculum. They can also provide techniques and strategies teachers can use to promote general learning in the classroom. While teachers can help students by adopting an instructional style that meets the student’s educational, developmental, and behavioural needs (CPA, 2007).

As The Canadian Psychological Association (2007) points out, appointments and sessions can be scheduled to address students’ needs and provide a better understanding for students and families about what is happening at school. These appointments provide specific strategies to help students in their daily lives. After a thorough assessment, a school psychologist sets out realistic goals for the student (CPA, 2007).

Outside the school setting, school psychologists work with other professions and collaborate with mental and nonmental health-based agencies. Depending on the situation, school psychologists may refer students to outside facilities that can address students’ specific needs. For example, if students require social support, they may be referred to the YMCA (Hopple & Ball, 2022).

Crisis Prevention

School psychologists are essential in supporting schools, families, and the community. School psychologists serve the community by planning and implementing specific programs that help prevent crises within the school district, such as violent attacks; they also integrate crisis response programs in the event such traumatic events occur (National Association of School Psychology [NASP], 2010). By working with school staff, administrators, and mental and physical health professionals, school psychologists are equipped to formulate effective and meaningful strategies to better the educational environment for the entire student body (NASP, 2010).

School psychologists are required to accommodate their settings (i.e., offices, schools, communities) and develop connections with community leaders, specifically from minority groups, who are directly and indirectly involved or affected by the crisis (Athey & Moody-Williams, 2003; NASP, 2010). Considering cultural differences in diverse populations is essential, as many situations can be traced back to targeting minority groups (e.g., Black or Asian individuals, Muslims and Jewish students, members of the LGBTQ2+ community, and students with physical or mental disabilities) (NASP, 2010).

After a crisis occurs, school psychologists are trained to connect with a variety of individuals who may have been affected. They reach out to community leaders, disseminating information and providing accommodations if necessary (e.g., written forms in multiple languages) (Athey & Moody-Williams, 2003; NASP, 2010). Information sheets tend to be prepared beforehand to ensure the quickest response. School psychologists also use other forms of communication, such as radio announcements and sign language, to guarantee the widest target audience. This can be difficult, however, since there may be limited resources (e.g., lack of access to individuals trained in American Sign Language (Athey & Moody-Williams, 2003; NASP, 2010).

Referrals to Community Services

School psychologists frequently collaborate with other professions in the school environment (teachers, counsellors, and principals) and outside of the school board (mental health professionals, medical doctors, community leaders, and law enforcement) (Lambie, 2008; Weist et al., 2006; Mellin et al., 2011). Interprofessional collaboration is when these professions work together to benefit and support one another and better the community (NASP, 2010). One reason interprofessional collaboration is paramount is that contact and communication with other professionals may help alleviate workload and task fatigue, especially since there are so few school psychologists in the field (Anderson-Butcher & Ashton, 2004).

Although school psychologists are expected to adapt and form a connection within the community, some school psychologists argue that they are not fully equipped to do so. Adjusting can be difficult, especially with the growing diversity of communities and with how little time and resources are given to school psychologists (Debski et al., 2007; O’Neill et al., 2020; Hopple & Ball, 2022). As previously mentioned, connecting with the community benefits families, students, and the school psychologist since they sometimes must refer students to medical doctors, pharmacists, and specialized psychologists (Athey & Moody-Williams, 2003; NASP, 2010).

Capacity Building of School and Teaching Staff

As outlined in the previous sections, school psychologists help teachers and other school staff develop techniques to better suit students’ needs and requirements (CPA, 2017). By assisting teachers and educating them on ways to adapt teaching styles to accommodate different groups and individuals, students are given more opportunities to further their education and enhance overall success (CPA, 2017). School psychologists can also inform teachers about mental health-related instances that can arise in the school setting—for example, educating a teacher on how to respond to a student suffering from panic attacks and teaching fellow students appropriate responses regarding the matter (CPA, 2017).

As suggested in the Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists (CPA, 2017), school psychologists interact with the entire school population. They provide screening throughout the day, which can help identify potential problems in and outside the classroom. School psychologists also directly contact specific students they think are at risk, form professional bonds with students, and offer interventions to support their struggles (CPA, 2017).

Providing teachers and school staff with a coordinator that can be easily accessed is another benefit of having a school psychologist around. Teachers can contact the school psychologist regarding concerns about students in their class, such as behavioural or academic issues. The school psychologist will assess the situation and formulate a plan for the teacher to follow to improve the learning environment (CPA, 2017).

Sometimes teachers are not aware of students’ cognitive and developmental abilities. As teachers focus on educating the general student population, they may unintentionally overlook specific students’ struggles (Ball et al., 2010; Mellin et al., 2011). Nevertheless, teachers may refer students to a school psychologist if they suspect a neurological disorder, such as ADHD or ASD, which may help explain the student’s academic performance and behaviour at school (CPA, 2017).

Program Development

After reviewing what school psychologists do and their contribution to the school board and general population, it is vital to address what is lacking within the field of school psychology. School psychologists feel inadequately prepared to enter the workforce due to time constraints during their training programs (Debski et al., 2007; O’Neill et al., 2020; Hopple & Ball, 2022), while others endorse lack of resources, such as time, money, and social and emotional support when they begin their career (Hopple & Ball, 2022).

The field of school psychology is continuing to expand. In addition to working in school districts, school psychologists form connections within the community, addressing problems and accommodating the needs of diverse populations (Athey & Moody-Williams, 2003; Culturally Competent Crisis Response: Information for School Psychologists and Crisis Teams, 2004). As the profession evolves, school psychologists receive more recognition and appreciation. Additionally, more training and educational programs are popping up, which will help future school psychologists broaden their skills and competencies, preparing them to enter the exciting field of school psychology.

School psychologists lack diversity; thus, it is imperative that individuals from diverse backgrounds are provided with the resources necessary to enter the field and become registered psychologists. Benefits include connecting diverse communities and broadening understanding and current knowledge of individuals from different cultures and backgrounds (Culturally Competent Crisis Response: Information for School Psychologists and Crisis Teams, 2004).

Issues Facing School Psychologists

Issues faced by school psychologists abound, yet rural school psychologists tend to encounter more issues than urban psychologists due to a lack of resources in their area (Hargrove,1986). Despite this difference, issues experienced by rural and urban school psychologists include understaffing, increased workloads, evidence-based practice issues, and definitions of clinical competency.

Understaffing

More school psychologists are needed in the field; thus, understaffing is a big issue. Since there are not enough staff to fulfill the demand, many school psychologists are overworked due to increased workloads. This raises multiple issues, such as the quality of care available to students and the mental health of the psychologist. When workloads increase, the time spent assessing and supporting students decreases. With limited time, some students may slip through the cracks and not receive the necessary support (Barker & Carlson Berg, 2022). This creates a bottleneck effect where students with more severe learning and behavioural issues receive most of the aid, leaving those with less urgent issues unnoticed or only minimally supported. The school psychologist is not at fault in these instances, as there is only so much one individual can do. Having to juggle time, resources, and workloads significantly decreases productivity. Until understaffing is rectified, school psychologists are forced to make do with what they have.

Evidence-Based Practices

Another issue many school psychologists face is recommending and implementing evidence-based practices in the school environment. School psychologists rely on evidence-based practices, using empirically backed methods to help children acquire knowledge and behavioural regulation skills (King et al.,2022). Issues arise when these practices are not implemented correctly and effectively in the classroom. Although school psychologists recommend specific interventions, it is not always feasible for teachers to execute them accurately.

Clinical Competency

Possessing clinical competency is crucial for school psychologists. Clinical competency refers to a psychologist’s ability to provide accurate assessments and critically choose the most appropriate interventions using evidence-based practices. A lack of clinical competency can result in unreliable assessments, causing more harm than good for students (Barker & Carlson Berg, 2022). For example, a student may be misdiagnosed with ADHD if a school psychologist lacks training and experience in diagnosing externalizing behavioural disorders. Misdiagnosis can result in a child receiving accommodations and interventions that are irrelevant or ineffective. Thus, clinical competency is necessary to ensure students receive proper support at each stage of development and flexible interventions that meet the changing needs of students (Barker & Carlson Berg, 2022).

Issues Impacting Rural School Psychologists

Some issues impact rural school psychologists more than psychologists who practice in urban settings. A major issue in rural locations is that the school psychologist may be the only source of professional mental health help in the area (Barker & Carlson Berg, 2022). Because resources are low in rural areas, access to mental health professionals is more challenging. Thus, school psychologists enter environments where the need for help is dire, but resources are slim or nonexistent (Edwards & Sullivan, 2014). This issue is best highlighted by the number of individuals who need help but continue to suffer due to a lack of access to mental health professionals. Because of the scarcity of psychologists in rural areas, school psychologists may be overwhelmed by the number of individuals on their caseload. Supporting an entire school population is challenging in its own right. However, rural school psychologists may also be pulled into roles outside of their expertise, especially if the community turns to them for help outside the school environment. This increases their workload extensively and can result in burnout, endangering not only the health of the school psychologist but also the clients (Hargrove, 1986; Owens et al., 2013). Role confusion may occur with school psychologists being the only mental health resource in these areas. Being pulled into different directions inside and outside the school system makes it difficult for school psychologists to focus on their primary roles and responsibilities. This can take away from their ability to provide quality care to all parties.

The distance between resources and clients is another major issue that rural psychologists face. The physical distance that the psychologist or the client needs to travel to obtain proper care may stand in the way of treatment. This creates a gap between those who can receive treatment and those who cannot based on their ability to travel to access it. With a lack of accessible resources due to physical distance, school psychologists face more issues providing support, assessments, and accommodations (Campbell & Gordon, 2003). It also creates an isolating environment for school psychologists.

In addition to physical isolation, psychologists in rural areas often enter tight-knit communities that may be apprehensive about outsiders, which can result in mental isolation. Being physically and mentally isolated from others while trying to integrate into the community can take its toll on school psychologists. This can increase tenfold when the psychologist does not belong to or identify with the area’s culture, creating a rift between the citizens and the psychologist (Clopton & Knesting, 2006).

Most school psychologists are white women with little cultural diversity, which can make it difficult for them to connect with minority populations in rural communities. Instead, the community may view the psychologist as a threat and undermine their aims to help. Similarly, psychologists may find it challenging to perform their duties if they are unaware of their client’s culture. As previously discussed, understanding cultural norms and behaviours is necessary for school psychologists to help the child best. If these behaviours are misinterpreted, it could lead to inappropriate assessments and interventions that the child may not require.

What is Needed Become a School Psychologist

Now that we have gone over what school psychologists do and why it is important, we can dig into the requirements and education necessary to become a registered school psychologist in Canada and some of the competencies needed within the field.

Qualifications of School Psychologists

According to the CPA (2007), to become a qualified school psychologist in Canada, individuals must undergo training at the graduate level as a scientist-practitioner or scholar-clinician. Students are educated in many facets of psychology, including behavioural psychology, program evaluation, social psychology, research methodology, foundations of learning, individual differences, assessments, and interventions (CPA, 2007). School psychology differs from other fields of psychology as school psychologists receive training and experience in mental health and educational issues.

Licensing requirements differ depending on region; some jurisdictions require psychologists to have a doctoral degree, whereas others only require a graduate-level master’s degree to register as a psychologist in Canada (CPA, 2007). Regardless of jurisdiction, psychologists in training must be supervised by a registered psychologist (i.e., one licensed to work and provide services in Canada). In this context, the non-registered psychologist is referred to as a psychometrist (CPA,2007).

The Canadian Psychological Association (2007) uses the term ‘licensed’ to refer to psychologists registered to work in a specific province or territory. Each province has its own licensing board. In Nova Scotia, psychologists obtain their license from the Nova Scotia Board of Examiners in Psychology (NSBEP), which permits them to practice within their competency (e.g., school psychology, clinical psychology). It should be noted that the term licensed psychologist can be used interchangeably with registered or chartered psychologist (CPA, 2007).

Some jurisdictions do not require psychologists to be licensed by licensing boards, only requiring them to become certified by the provincial department of education. As the titles ‘psychologist’ and ‘psychological associate’ are legally protected, only registered professionals are permitted to use them (CPA, 2007).

School psychologists understand that mental health and the educational environment can significantly impact students’ behaviour, which can affect their learning and academic performance (CPA, 2007). Consequently, academic performance and difficulty learning material can influence students’ emotional, behavioural, and social adjustment. In these cases, school psychologists address these problems and provide targeted services which can be implemented in different settings, environments, and communities (CPA, 2007).

Core Psychology Competencies

Interpersonal Relationships

School psychologists must develop and maintain strong interpersonal relationships with others. Because school psychologists work in the context of interpersonal relationships (e.g., parent-child, teacher-student, boss-employee.), the ability to form lasting professional relationships and alliances with their clients and colleagues is required. Per this, school psychologists must possess adequate cultural competency. The Mutual Recognition Agreement (2001) identifies the skills necessary for school psychologists to meet the criteria of this core competency below:

● Effective communication

● Establishment and maintenance of rapport

● Establishment and maintenance of trust and respect in the professional relationship

Assessment and Evaluation

School psychologists must determine which evaluation methods are best suited to the client, using diverse evaluation methods when necessary. This is important as they should not rely solely on formalized testing as an automatic response to situations requiring assessment. The subject of evaluation may not be a person but a couple, family, or organization. School psychologists must apply their assessment skills to many situations apart from initial evaluations. For example, they use assessments to evaluate treatment outcomes, program plans, and problems occurring in a variety of non-clinical settings. The main goal of psychological assessment is to devise a practical plan of action to help the client. This may result in a diagnostic classification for the client or identification of the client’s strengths or competencies. The Mutual Recognition Agreement (2001) identifies the skills needed to meet the criteria of this core competency below:

● Formulation of a referral question

● Selection of methods

● Information collection and processing

● Psychometric methods

● Formulation of hypotheses and making a diagnosis when appropriate

● Report writing

● Formulation of an action plan

Intervention and Consultation

Intervention and consultation encompass activities that promote, restore, sustain, and enhance positive functioning and well-being for clients. This is done through preventive, developmental, and remedial services performed by school psychologists, teachers, administrators, or outside specialists. School psychologists must have broad intervention competency. The Mutual Recognition Agreement (2001) identifies the primary skills needed by school psychologists to meet this core competency:

● Establish and maintain professional relationships with clients from all populations served

● Establish and maintain appropriate interdisciplinary relationships with colleagues

● Gather information about the nature and severity of problems and formulate hypotheses about the contributing factors through qualitative and quantitative means

● Select appropriate intervention methods

● Analyze information, develop conceptual frameworks, and communicate them to clients

Ethics and Standards

All mental health professionals, including school psychologists, must accept their obligations, be sensitive to others, and conduct themselves ethically. School psychologists must establish professional relationships within proper constraints and standards to ensure ethical and respectful conduct toward their clients and colleagues. The Mutual Recognition Agreement (2001) identifies the primary skills needed by school psychologists to meet the criteria of this core competency below:

● Ethical decision-making processes

● Proactive identification of potential ethical dilemmas

● Resolution of ethical dilemmas

Research

School psychologists undergo research training, which helps them develop an understanding and respect for the scientific principles underpinning the discipline. Knowledge of research methods and skills conducting research skills are essential for school psychologists to be good consumers of research and carry out projects in an academic context. The Mutual Recognition Agreement (2001) identifies the skills necessary for school psychologists to meet the criteria of this core competency below:

● Critical reasoning skills

● Application of various research approaches to social systems

● Ability to write professional reports

Ethical Obligations of School Psychologists

Registered psychologists in Canada must follow the Code of Ethics developed by the Canadian Psychological Association (2007). The Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists (2017) is structured to guide psychological professionals through decision-making processes when they encounter ethical situations. The Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists (2017) has four principles listed below:

Principle I: Respect for the Dignity of Persons and Peoples.

Unless individuals are in immediate danger or risk being harmed or harming someone else, this code holds the most weight compared to the other principles. It focuses on respecting people’s dignity and rights, such as their inherent worth, moral rights, social and natural justice, and non-discrimination (CPA, 2017).

Principle II: Responsible Caring.

Principle two is the second highest principle as it emphasizes responsible caring but should only be used in a way that respects people’s dignity. It focuses on maximizing benefits and minimizing client harm (CPA, 2017).

Principle III: Integrity in Relationships

Principle three is the third most important. Integrity in relationships is essential; thus, psychologists are expected to develop and maintain integrity in all their relationships. This principle is supplementary to the previous two principles—respect for the dignity of persons and responsible caring—as the former two principles take precedence over the latter (CPA, 2017).

Principle IV: Responsibility to Society.

Responsibility to society is the fourth and final principle regarding weight if it conflicts with the above three principles. Though it is vital to be respectful towards society and consider society as a whole during the decision-making process, this principle should not supersede the other three principles (CPA, 2017).

Suppose the welfare of individuals or groups is at risk of being harmed, but this conflicts with responsibility to society. In that case, it is essential to ensure that considering society does not violate peoples’ dignity, rights, and integrity. In rare situations, it is not possible to adhere to all principles, so respect for the dignity of persons and people, responsible caring, and integrity in relationships overpower psychologists’ responsibility to society (CPA, 2017).

The Ethical Code is used to guide psychologists in everyday decision-making. It must be adhered to when resolving ethical dilemmas in both a reactive and proactive matter (CPA, 2017). The Code can also be used as a reference or framework to identify behaviours that go against ethical standards; if psychologists violate ethical principles, they must be reported to the proper licensing bodies.

Another way psychologists use The Code is to assist and protect them against client complaints. It helps direct psychologists into acting and making judgments (CPA, 2017).

Mutual Recognition Agreement (MRA) (CPA, 2001)

The Mutual Recognition Agreement (2001) is a signed agreement that obliges psychologists to comply with the Agreement on International Trade (AIT) (MRA, 2001). This agreement establishes the conditions and regulations necessary when registered psychologists practice within one of the Canadian jurisdictions (MRA, 2001). The terms and conditions of the MRA (2001) include but are not limited to complete understanding and agreement to use their qualifications as psychologists to practice psychology in Canada and that individual and public safety is upheld and maintained while also complying with authority. More details will be provided in this chapter’s following few topics.

Knowledge in the Core Areas of Psychology (MRA standards)

The Mutual Recognition Agreement of the regulatory bodies for professional psychologists in Canada (2001) states that to become a registered psychologist in Canada, individuals must know the core areas of psychology. The core competencies cover several aspects of psychology, such as interpersonal relationships, intervention and consultation, research, ethics and standards, supervision, and evaluation. Below we will go into more detail regarding the required competencies for psychologists.

Foundational Knowledge Required of School Psychologists

There are four fundamental foundations that school psychologists (and other registered psychologists) in Canada must know (Kaplan, n.d.). These include knowledge of biological bases of behaviour, cognitive-affective bases of behaviour, social bases of behaviour, and psychology of the individual.

Knowledge of the Biological Bases of Behaviour

Behaviour is impacted by biology. The nervous system is a highly complex and specialized structure, and neuroplasticity allows humans to expand their abilities and knowledge. The behaviour of all living organisms is caused by their biological structures, which are interconnected. Behaviours can be due to both nature and nurture, as certain behaviours are learned (e.g., reading), while others are innate (e.g., possessing the ability to learn how to read) (Kaplan, n.d.).

Knowledge of the Cognitive-Affective Bases of Behaviour

Cognitive-affective bases of behaviour focus on how cognition affects behaviour. These include cognitive domains such as memory, learning, perception and sensation, attention, executive function, and motivation (Jerram et al., 2014).

Knowledge of the Social Bases of Behaviour

The social bases of behaviour underlines how actions are influenced by social interactions. The most significant basis for social behaviour is an individual’s background and culture, which contributes to how individuals act, react, view and interact with the world around them (S, 2016).

Knowledge of Psychology of the Individual

Psychology of the individual is a theory that takes a positive approach toward human behaviour. It maintains that individuals can make positive changes and contribute to bettering themselves and society (Sperry & Sperry, 2020).

Summary

This chapter aims to provide readers with a greater understanding of the role of school psychologists. We covered what school psychology is, what school psychologists do, who they work with, how they work, as well as the struggles they face and what individuals need to enter this diverse and growing field. School psychology is a broad field taking influences from many psychological fields. The interdisciplinary nature of school psychology makes it a complex field that is essential for the success of youth in the education system. Below we invite you to partake in a knowledge check to confirm your understanding of the chapter by reading over the following outcomes and assessing your comprehension