17 Appendix
Orders of magnitude
Number | Power of 10 | Name | Prefix
(symbol) |
Example in biology (approx) |
0.000000000000000001 | 10-18 | Quintillionth | atto- (a) | |
0.000000000000001 | 10-15 | Quadrillionth | femto- (f) | |
0.000000000001 | 10-12 | Trillionth | pico- (p) | |
0.000000001 | 10-9 | Billionth | nano- (n) | 20 nanometers = synapse length |
0.000001 | 10-6 | Millionth | micro- (µ) | 10 micrometers = neuron diameter |
0.001 | 10-3 | Thousandth | milli- (m) | 2 milliseconds = duration of action potential |
1 | 100 | 1.7 meters = height of a human | ||
1,000 | 103 | Thousand | kilo- (k) | 20 kilohertz = highest pitch humans can hear |
1,000,000 | 106 | Million | mega- (M) | |
1,000,000,000 | 109 | Billion | giga- (G) | 86 billion = neurons in the brain |
1,000,000,000,000 | 1012 | Trillion | tera- (T) | 150 trillion = synapses in the brain |
1,000,000,000,000,000 | 1015 | Quadrillion | peta- (P) | |
1,000,000,000,000,000,000 | 1018 | Quintillion | exa- (E) |
Measurement | Unit (short) | Examples |
Length | Meters (m) | Length of wavelength of visible light: 500 nanometers Length of a typical neuron: 20 micrometers
Height of a typical human: 1.7 meters |
Volume | Liters (L) | Volume of cytoplasm in a single spin: 0.1 femtoliters Volume of CSF in ventricles: 150 milliliters |
Weight | Grams (g) | Weight of typical brain: 1.3 kilograms
Weight of typical grown adult human: 70 kilograms |
Time | Second (s) | Duration of action potential: 2 millisecond |
Velocity | Meters per second (m/s) | Speed of slow action potential propagation: 0.1 m/s Speed of fast action potential propagation: 100 m/s |
Concentration | Molar (M) | Calcium ion concentraion in cell: 100 nanomolar Sodium ion concentration in ACSF: 140 millimolar |
Temperature | Celsuis (C) Kelvin (K) | Freezing point of water: 0 Celsius or 273 Kelvin Typical body temperature: 37 Celsius or 310 Kelvin |
Electrical potential | Volts (V) | Charge of a typical neuron: -70 millivolts |
Current | Ampere (A) | Current passing through single ion channel: 5 picoamps |
Resistance | Ohm (Ω) | Typical input resistance of neuron: 200 megaohms |
Conductance | Siemens (S) | Conductance through single ion channel: 10 picosiemens |
Capacitance | Farad (F) | Capacitance in neuron: 100 picofarads |
Magnetic field | Tesla (T) | Strength of fMRI machine: 5 Tesla |
Frequency | Hertz (Hz) | Range of human hearing: 20 Hertz to 20 kilohertz |
Loudness | Decibels (dB) | Pain threshold: 130 dB Conversation: 65 dB |
Neurotransmitters and their receptors
Ionotropic receptors Excitatory
Metabotropic receptors Inhibitory
Acetylcholine
Endocannabinoids
Adenosine
Brodmann areas and functions
Brodmann area | Name | Function |
1, 2, 3 | Primary somatosensory cortex (S1) | Touch sensory and perception |
4 | Primary motor cortex (M1) | Voluntary motor control |
5 | Superior parietal lobule | Identification of objects based on somato- sensory cues (stereognosis) |
6 | Premotor; supplemental motor | Limb movement planning |
7 | Posterior parietal association area | Integration of visual and motor |
8 | Frontal eye fields | Visual perception and motor, saccades |
9, 46 | Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex | High order executive functions |
10 | Anterior prefrontal cortex | High order executive functions |
11, 12 | Orbitofrontal area | Emotion, decision making |
13, 14, 16 | Insular cortex | Emotion, empathy, taste, homeostasis |
15 | Anterior temporal lobe | Social knowledge and memories |
17 | Primary visual cortex (V1) | Vision, pattern recognition |
18 | Secondary visual cortex (V2) | Vision, illusory contours |
19 | Associative visual cortices | Vision, color, motion, depth |
20 | Inferior temporal gyrus | Visual memory, face perception |
21 | Middle temporal gyrus | Visual memory, emotional recognition |
22 | Superior temporal gyrus | Language comprehension, attention, hear- ing |
23, 31 | Posterior cingulate cortex | Emotions |
24, 32, 33 | Anterior cingulate cortex | Emotions, attention, decision making |
25 | Subgenual area | Inhibition of emotion, decision making |
26 | Ectosplenial area | Emotions |
27 | Presubiculum | Emotions, head direction |
28, 34 | Entorhinal cortex | Memory, navigation, smell, emotions |
29, 30 | Retrosplenial cortex | Memory, navigation |
35, 36 | Perirhinal cortex | Perception, memory |
37 | Fusiform gyrus | Facial processing, perception |
38 | Temporopolar area | Socio-emotional processing, smell |
39 | Angular gyrus | Reading, speech, perception |
40 | Supramarginal gyrus | Language perception and processing |
41, 42 | Auditory cortex (A1) | Hearing |
43 | Gustatory cortex | Taste |
44, 45, 47 | Broca’s area | Language, movement planning, cognition |
48 | Retrosubicular area | Memory |
49 | Parasubicular area | Navigation |
52 | Parainsular area |
Location of Brodmann areas
Lateral view
Midsagittal view
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cholinergic_synapse.svg
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Human_Brodmann_areas_(K._Brodmann,_1909,_p._131,_Fig._85-86).jpg
The Open Neuroscience Initiative is funded by a grant from the Vincentian Endowment Fund of DePaul University.
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